Emotion

Emotion from Vygotsky & beyond

台灣大學心理系 葉怡玉

輔仁大學心理系 黃揚名

大綱

情緒概念的演變 part I

Vygotsky對於情緒的看法

情緒概念的演變 part II

情緒的結構

情緒是天生的?

情緒的神經機制

當今情緒與認知的研究

¨ 情緒研究的演變 part I

¨ 達爾文：情緒研究的先驅

¨ The expression of the emotions in man and animals

¤ 將情緒分類為不同的entities: 憤怒、恐懼、disgust, 快樂, 悲傷等

¤ 主要集中於臉部表情

¤ 情緒的臉部表達是universal

¤ 情緒非人類獨有：動物

¤ 解釋為何特定動作傳達特定情緒

¨ 殘存論

¨ Spencer & Ribert

¤ 人類情緒的生物學起源：動物本能的情緒反應

¤ 情緒：獨一無二的領域，國中之國

¤ 隨著進化，人類情緒應會逐漸消失

¨ James-Lange理論

¨ 區分低等與高等情緒：只有低等情緒才具有機體的來源

¨ 刺激-身體本能ANS反應（James:內臟；Lange:血管舒張）-對身體反應的知覺產生情緒 （害怕是因為你跑或顫抖）

¤ 只要控制本能反應，情緒應消失

¤ 只要做出身體反應，情緒應出現

¨ 3 groups of physical changes in every feeling

¤ motor reactions (眼、嘴等身體）, somatic reactions（呼吸、心跳等）, secretory reactions （眼淚、冒汗等）

¨ 東方的觀點

¨ 五行

¨ Cannon

¨ 自主神經的反應太慢，無法解釋接受情緒刺激時感受的快速產生

¨ 感受與生理反應應是情緒的獨立成分

¨ 不同的情緒有同樣的身體反應：身體反應不為某特定情緒所持有

¨ 身體反應有程度的差異：情緒強度

¨ 切除交感神經：情緒狀態依然存在

¤ 自主神經非情緒感受的必要條件

¨ 注射藥物：受試者必需要找理由，才能出現情緒

¨ Cannon

¨ 強烈情緒發生在生存有重要意義的時刻：提高身體的運動能力，動作的開始

¤ 內臟的反應是肌肉活動能力增強的表現，而不是情緒本身

¨ 情緒的物質基礎是大腦，在分別產生感覺與身體反應

¨ 是情緒中的本能成分在消失

¨ 把情緒分為高等與低等是不可能的

¨ 貢獻：情緒的心理生理研究

¨ Freud

¨ 認同：情緒生活是極富變化的心理現象

¨ 認同：情緒並不是一開始就有的；開始時是矛盾情緒的分化（pleasure/ displeasure）

¨ 談其貢獻：容易理解情緒的動態-情緒只是整個精神生活的發展，逐漸有其內容與價值

¨ 其它學者

¨ Adler:情緒是性格的一部份，人的生活態度與性格結構也會受到情緒體驗的制約

¤ 連結情緒與基本心理結構

¨ 彪勒(Buhler)：發展的早期並非只有快樂的原則在制約心理與活動；快樂本身有三個階段；多樣化的兒童情緒生活

¤ 終結時的快樂：本能（餓）的滿足

¤ 活動過程中：兒童遊戲

n 養成一個習慣的必要條件

¤ 活動一開始時

¨ 小結

¨ 情緒的中樞：由大腦外回歸到大腦

¨ 情緒與其它心理過程連結起來，成為整體心理結構的一部份

¨ 病理心理學

¨ 大腦皮質內下視丘損壞：不自主狂笑，但不快樂

¨ 側視丘受傷：身體右側的興奮-正常情緒反應；左側-病態

¨ Vygotsky對於情緒的看法

¨ Vygotsky看James

¨ 情緒與其它感覺無異：與刺激人類感官的物質過程聯繫在一起

¨ 將情緒的器官（內臟）與思維的器官（腦）分離：情緒與意識分開

¨ 回到唯心主義觀點

¤ 人類發展：高等情緒（唯靈）是動物所不具備的，低等情緒則純粹是生理的反應

¨ Vygotsky

¨ 情緒：與特定刺激藉由反射所連結反應的特定組合

¤ 所有身體反應的必要組合:行為的一部份，曾具有生物性質、有用、適應性

n Fear: an inhibition of running, from the instinct of self preservation in defensive form

n Anger: an inhibition of fighting, from the instinct of self preservation in offensive form

¨ 對本體感覺的知覺（feedback reactions: the return of ones own reaction back to the organism as a new stimulus）

¤ The subjective nature

¨ Vygotsky

¨ 行為是有機體與環境的互動：有3種關係形式

¤ 有機體自覺優越於環境：順利的達成設定目標，無須費力即完成理想的適應

¤ 有機體在適應環境時經驗到困難與相當程度的壓力：行為需費極大的能量

¤ 二者平衡

¨ 情緒：有機體自評與環境的關係connected with the sensation of force, contentment in the interaction

¤ Positive sensations

¤ Negative sensations

¤ Neutral emotion

¨ Vygotsky

¨ 情緒：secondary reaction

¤ A reaction occurs at the critical & catastrophic moments of behavior, as points of disequilibrium

¤ The ultimate end & outcome of behavior

¤ Have a direct impact on the subsequent behavior at every moment: A powerful guide of behavior

¤ Extraordinarily common even in the most primitive reactions

¨ Vygotsky

¨ It is in emotional reaction that the purposefulness of our organism manifests itself

¤ the attenuated external forms of movements that accompany emotion: their inner role as guides of all of behavior still remains

¨ Vygotsky

¨ 情緒：對反應的原始、根本的調控

¤ The origin of psyche: the emergence of hedonist consciousness (primitive sensation of pleasure or displeasure- a component of a feedback reaction; arise earlier than all the other reactions; primitive forms of the childs purely mental behavior)

¤ Feedback reaction affects reaction via guiding behaviors: strains, excites, stimulates, obstructs, etc.

¨ Vygotsky

¨ The purposeful character of emotional reactions can be understood from Wundts 3-D theory of the feelings

¤ Pleasure & displeasure

¤ Excitation & suppression

¤ Stress & resolution

¨ Vygotsky

¨ Every emotion constitutes an urge to action or a rejection of action（若做某個行為可得到愉悅，之後會重複該行為）

¤ The organisms regulation of every one of its individual reactions

¨ Education of the feelings: Re-education

¨ Every feeling is the mechanisms of a reaction

¨ Alert the stimuli associated with the reaction

¨ Broaden the narrow, self-centered sensation of an emotion into social feelings

¤ Transfer feelings to others-context form new relations between a feeling and other stimuli, contexts

n Teach the child to respond with anger to wrongs done his social class, his own craft, own country, etc.

¤ Relate each emotional reaction with the most diverse stimuli by creating conflict between different stimuli in the students personal experience

¨ Education of feelings：to the teachers

¨ 瞭解以自我為中心的情緒是最原始、基本的，也是感覺裡最有強而有力，是人格情緒結構的基石

¤ 沒有所謂的不可接受的情緒

¨ 活動裡激發情緒成分，以教導其它行為

¤ Every time you tell a student something, take care to engage his feeling

¨ Education of feelings：to the teachers

¨ Teach the child to become the ruler of his or her emotions

¤ Incorporate the emotions into the general network of behavior; bind the feelings with the other forms of behavior

n Intimately related to all the other reactions & not burst into the disruptive & disorderly fashion

¤ Become mastrery of their motor expression into an appropriate directions

n Accept the natural, emotional reactions

n Conscious of movements & the control over these movements

¨ Games: the best means of disciplining emotional behavior; the best tool for the integrated education

¨ 情緒概念的演變 part II

¨ 情緒是與生俱來的

¨ 情緒是社會建構的產物

¨ 情緒是對於身體反應的知覺

¨ 情緒是認知評估的產物

¨ 情緒是一個標籤！

¨ Barrett

¤ Emotions that we perceive and experience are emerged from more basic and fundamental psychological processes

n Core affect

n Conceptualization process

¨ 情緒的結構?

¨ 情緒是類別的

¨ Descartes

¤ Love, hatred, desire, joy, sadness and admiration

¨ Darwin

¤ Facial expression research

n Facial expression appear in similar form across different species, age groups, normal vs. cortically blind, races

¨ Ekman定義基本情緒類別的條件

¨ 情緒是二維的

¨ DES

¤ Valence is a more fundamental property of affect than discrete emotion terms

¨ Questionnaire measures

¨ 情緒是二維的

¨ Positive affect and negative affect

¨ 情緒是二維的

¨ Tension vs. energy

¨ 情緒是類別的

¨ Barrett

¤ People experience an emotion when they conceptualize an instance of affective feeling

¤ The experience of emotion: an act of categorization, guided by embodied knowledge about emotion

¨ 情緒是天生的？

¨ What are natural kinds?

¨ In everyday terms, a natural kind is a collection or category of things that are all the same as one another, but different from some other set of things.

¨ This grouping, or category, is given by nature and is discovered, not created, by the human mind.

¨ In a natural-kind category, instances cluster together in a meaningful way because they have something real in common.

¨ Two ways to characterize natural-kind categories

¨ A cluster of observable properties

¤ A category constitutes a natural kind if every instance of the kind looks the same and shares a collection of features or properties that co-occur.

¨ Two ways to characterize natural-kind categories

¨ A casual mechanism

¤ Aristotle assumed that each kind has an essence—some underlying cause that defines it and makes the kind what it is.

¤ From an essentialist point of view, an essence is The mechanism that guarantees the identity of the natural kind and serves as the principal defining element for instances of that kind, regardless of what those instances actually look like

¨ Kinds of emotion

¨ Property clusters

¤ Darwin: The expression of the emotions in man and animals

¤ Each emotion kind is characterized by a distinctive syndrome of hormonal, muscular, and autonomic responses that are coordinated in time and correlated in intensity

¨ Causal mechanisms

¨ Emotion kinds are caused by distinct emotion mechanisms

¤ If this rationale does not exist, there is no point in doing neuroimaging studies

¨ Are emotion categories revealed in correlated response patterns?

¨ One way to establish the presence of an abstract construct like anger, fear, or sadness is to demonstrate that each has measurable effects that are highly correlated

¤ If measurements are highly correlated, they must derive from a common cause

¤ If they are not correlated, the measurements have separable causes

¨ Evidence

¨ No correlation or weak correlation between measurements are observed

¨ When high correlations are reported, they couldnt rule out the possible confound of other psychological properties such as valence or arousal

¨ Higher correlations between broader emotion categories (such as arousal)

¨ Is there evidence of causal mechanisms?

¨ Hypothesis

¤ The structure of observed responses will mirror the structure of the underlying mechanisms that caused them

¨ Evidence

¨ Subjective report

¤ Doesnt seem to support discrete categories. High correlations between emotion categories

¨ Facial and vocal signals

¤ Although above-change accuracy is observed, it does not explain in-group advantage

¤ No evidence of infants being able to distinguish emotions!

¨ Peripheral nervous system response

¤ Some evidence but open to alternative explanations (p.41)

¨ Panksepp (2007)

¨ I do not know of any way to reveal the nature of primary process cross-species brain mechanisms except through animal research, but there is a tendency for psychologists interested in the human mind to neglect those findings.

¨ Three questions for Barrett

¨ Is Barretts argument, based largely on correlative analyses of human electrophysiological and brain imaging data, sufficient to harm basic emotion theory?

¨ Do positive and negative valences/arousals exist as birthrights, or is our emotional nature composed of more complex affective qualities?

¨ Can one adequately address these questions without analyzing the abundant causal evidence that has been obtained from a crossspecies affective neuroscience?

¨ 1. Correlative vs. causal evidence

¨ Subcortical brain stimulation data is more consistent but less than 2% of references Barret reviewed focused on these studies

¨ A lot of approach and avoidance studies showed that these systems control behavior

¨ Does she subscribe to a higher cortical read-out theory of affective states? If so, how does she account for subcortical phenomenon?

¨ Concerns with human neuroimaging data

¨ Because of the need for precise timing and because of its fast time resolution (<>

¨ PET results do show some support for discrete categories

¨ Emphasize the importance of ESB and CSB

¨ ESB: electrical stimulation of the brain

¨ CSB: chemical stimulation of the brain

¨ Suggest that ESB do show support for discrete emotion categories across species

¨ How would Barret deal with the following affective phenomena?

¨ The affective effects of various additive drugs are distinct enough to distinguish. But bidimensional model has difficulty explaining this

¨ Can a core affective view generate any precise psychobiological predictions?

¨ How could different kinds of drugs be used to mediate negative affect?

¨ 2. Are valence/arousal natural kinds?

¨ An advantage of dimensional approaches to the emotional life is that they have provided clearer visions than has basic emotion theory of how higher order cognitive emotional concepts might emerge through learning. However, basic emotion theory also provides a vision of the emergence of certain emotional complexities from more primitive brain systems through evolutionary refinements

¨ Barret et al. (2007)

¨ Defense

¨ First, we argue that the evidence offered in Barrett (2006a) was not merely correlational

¨ Second, we argue that, despite suggestions to the contrary, there is no conclusive evidence for the existence of at least seven prototype emotional systems in the mammalian brain

¨ Against correlational account

¨ Not all evidence are correlational

¨ Correlational evidence does not provide support for causal relationship but it does provide evidence from analogy perspective

¤ Individual instances that we call by the same name are presumed to look the same or share a distinctive collection of properties that co-occur

¨ Even experimental studies cannot conclusively determine cause

¨ Against focus on animal study

¨ A lot is happening in cortical area

¤ Size

¤ Connectivity

¤ Anatomical connection

¨ Against prototypes

¨ Evidence cited by Panksepp are misinterpreted. ESB does not always elicit affect let alone specific affect

¤ Valenstein

¨ Play

¨ Barrett

¨ Hypothesize that vPAG, PFA & DMT are central to this. But no solid evidence to support such argument

¨ No increase in c-fos mRNA in DMT or vPAG levels after animals engaged in play behavior

¨ Panksepp

¨ Never mention vPAG as a definite part of the network

¨ Laughter is intimately related to ascending mesolimbic/mesocortical dopamine system

¨ Rage

¨ Barrett

¨ Unsure if the same circuit exist in different animals to cause attack behaviors

¨ Unable to explain how different types of attack behaviors are instantiated.

¨ Panksepp

¨ Brainstem region from which affective attack/defensive behaviors can be generated are essentially identical in all mammals studied

¨ Panic/Distress

¨ Barrett

¨ Infant rats produced 40-kHz vocalization when separated from their mothers. But neural circuits involved in this process are not likely to be unique for panic/distress

¨ Panksepp

¨ Never use infant rat as model

¨ Opioids have been confirmed to regulate human sadness

¨ Seeking

¨ Barrett

¨ Dopamine circuitry is not only activated when seeking behavior takes place

¤ When unexpected events take place

¨ This should not be considered as a basic emotion

¨ Panksepp

¨ Seeking is never linked only to dopaminergic circuitry

¨ Fear

¨ Barrett

¨ Question whether studying freezing behavior is equivalent to studying fear

¨ Amygdala does not really respond to fear

¨ Panksepp

¨ Never restrict analysis of fear system to freezing

¨ Often noted that the amygdala is not an optimal location to get effects of fear

¨ Care and Lust

¨ Barrett

¨ Although these behaviors are caused by well-mapped patterns, there is little conclusive scientific evidence that nonhuman mammals feel anything specific beyond a basic affective or motivational state

¨ Panksepp

¨ Doesnt agree that neural firings only accounts for maternal behavior but not affective experience

¨ 情緒的神經機制

¨ Is there emotion center?

¨ Papez (1937)

¤ sensory information from external world and inside the body would reach the thalamus

¨ Is there emotion center?

¨ MacLean

¨ LeDoux：Dual routes to amygdala for fear conditioning

¨ A quick subcortical route

¨ A slower cortical route

¨ Meta analysis

¨ Harrison et al. (2010): The Embodiment of Emotional Feelings in the Brain

¨ We show that experience of core and body–boundary–violation disgust are dissociable in both peripheral autonomic and central neural responses

¨ Demonstrate that organ-specific physiological responses differentiate emotional feeling states and support the hypothesis that central representations of organism physiological homeostasis constitute a critical aspect of the neural basis of feelings

¨ 當今情緒與認知的研究

¨ Direct and indirect effects on visual information processing

¨ Direct influence on perception

¨ Phelps et al. (2006)

¤ Presence of affective cue enhance perception

¨ Impact of affect on early sensory regions

¨ On visual processing

¨ Requires attention resources

¨ Semantic processing of the stimuli may be required

¨ Less interference from emotional stimuli when targets are specified

¨ Individual differences in emotional processing

¨ Does emotion processing require attention? The effects of fear conditioning and perceptual load

Yates, Ashwin, & Fox (2010). Emotion, doi: 10.1037/a0020325

¨ Feelings dont come easy: Studies on the effortful nature of feelings

Kron, Schul, Cohe, & Hassin (2010), JEP: G, 139(3), 520-534

¨ Exp 5: monitor changes in feelings

¨ 5a: asterisk 5s, IAPS 4s, blank 10 ms as a signal for load group to monitor, same ISAP 4s, blank 1s, rating

¤ Results: 3.70 vs. 2.67

¨ 5b: + (when Harry met Sally) & - (Bambi) video clips

¨ Exp : focus on feelings

¨ Ruled out that monitoring encouraged distancing from feelings, the use of an analytical attitude, narrowing attention to specific components by asking participants to focus on their feelings

¨ Results: 3.06 vs. 2.71

¨ Mood on visual processing

¨ Positive: Global, relational, stereotypes

¨ Negative: Local, detailed, referential

¨ On memory

¨ Emotion enhances gist at the expense of peripheral memories

¤ Weapon focus

¤ Eastbrook: arousal causes a narrowing of attention

¤ However, Heuer & Reisberg showed such may not necessarily be true

¨ Because of Arousal

¨ Amygdala related with emotional memory

¨ Hippocampus related with neutral memory

¨ Because of Valence

¨ Kensinger & Corkin (2004)

¤ Better memory for negative words regardless of arousal level

¤ Good correlation between amygdala and hippocampus for arousing words

¤ Good correlation between PFC and hippocampus for negative words

¨ In which stage that emotion affects memory: Encoding

¨ Affective stimuli are more engaging

¨ Activity in the amygdala during encoding is positively correlated with memory performance 4 weeks later

¨ In consolidation

¨ Enhanced memory for affective content 24 hours after encoding suggesting affective content modulates consolidation process

¨ Drugs that block beta-adrenergic receptor in the amygdala impair this enhancement process

¨ In retrieval

¨ Different brain regions are associated with retrieval of affective & neutral information

¨ Retrieval cue

¨ Easier to retrieve contextual information related with affective material

¨ Mood Congruent Memory

¨ Items congruent with current mood during encoding is processed at a deeper level and engage in more elaborative associations

¨ Influence of mood at retrieval is less clear

¤ Consistent MCM is observed only for autobiographical memory

n But this can an encoding effect

n Memory of past affective experience may be distorted

n Memory is malleable

¨ MCM

¨ Factors that determine whether or not MCM would occur

¤ Self-referential vs. other-referential

¤ Awareness

¤ Intensity of the mood state & material

¨ Mood Dependent Memory (MDM)

¨ MDM

¨ MDM is more likely to be observed

¤ Real-life events

¤ Intense mood context

¤ When mood is used as a internally generated retrieval cue

¨ fMRI studies of successful emotional memory encoding: A quantitative meta-analysis

¨ Murty, Ritchey, Adcock, & LaBar (2010). Neuropsychologia, 48, 3459-3469

¨ Results

¨ Behavioral: better memory did not report false alarms in many studies

¨ Imaging

¤ Bilateral amygdala & anterior hippocampus, extending to entorhinal, perirhinal, & posterior parahippocampus

¤ Ventral visual stream: middle temporal, middle occipital, & fusiform gyri (Bas 19 & 37)

¤ Right parietal/supramarginal (BA 39/40)

¤ Left middle & inferior frontal gyri (BAs 10, 45/47)

¨ Mood and judgment

¨ People make evaluations congruent with their current mood

¨ Estimation of future positive or negative events are also influenced by current mood state