Summary of Art and Life, The Psychology of Art (1925), chapter 11, by Vygotsky
陳淑純
Main idea: the significance of applied arts應用藝術的重要性
1) 駁斥感染說(Theory of Contamination)
Tolstoy: art must be evaluated from a moral viewpoint托爾斯泰：對藝術的評價要從「道德」觀點觀察
Compare between Beethoven’s sonata Kreutzer & the singing of the peasant women: the latter expressed such a feeling of joy, while Beethoven’s sonata is neither remarkable nor outstanding. 托爾斯泰以二者帶給人們愉悅興奮的程度作評量
Vygotsky’s viewpoint: to understand art we must add something else to simple infectiousness.
依Vygotsky的概念，藝術可分為擬像的藝術(figurative arts)和抒情(lyrical arts)的藝術。Vygotsky: Longinus’s statement: The purpose of poetry is trepidation (Erschauern), that of prose is expressivity. Tolstoy failed to account for the trepidation which is the purpose of poetry.藝術有兩種能力∕力量∕目的︰一是散文（如小說）的「表達能力」，一是詩帶給人的「畏顫∕驚心動魄」，托爾斯泰忘了後者。→Why did Vygotsky make poetry analogous to Beethoven’s Sonata Kreutzer?「若將音樂視為一種獨立藝術，應該就是單指器樂，它鄙棄另一種藝術的任何幫忙、參雜，而純粹表達它自己特有的、只有在己身內部才能體認的藝術本質。……音樂開啟人們心中一個未知的境界，那是一個與外在感官世界全然不同的境界，身在其中，人們拒絕一切由語言概念決定的情感，為的是要投入那說不出的、不可言傳的層次。現今(1809)“所謂的”器樂作曲家有多少能夠認識到音樂真正的本質？他們用音樂描述確定的情感或事件，以致竟然以雕塑形象的方法處理音樂這種與造型藝術完全對立的藝術！例如迪特斯多夫(Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf, 1739-99) 的這類交響曲，以及其他作曲家針對戰爭圖像 所作的音樂，都是可笑的錯誤，人們應該忘記這些作品。」、「貝多芬的器樂也開啟巨大無邊與無可計量的境界。熾熱光芒射入這個境界的深夜，我們意識到一股巨大的黑影上下晃動，將我們愈包愈緊，毀滅我們身上的所有一切，只留下無止境渴望的痛苦；在渴望中，每一股迅速化為雀躍音符上升的興緻轉而下沉、沒入；苦痛吞噬了愛、希望與快樂，卻未將它們毀壞，而欲以所有熱情合奏出的飽滿和弦炸開我們的胸膛，也只有在這般苦痛中，我們的生命能繼續前進，成為心醉神迷的能見靈界者。」(E. T. A. Hoffmann, Rezension von Beethoven’s 5. Symphonie, 1809)
Music incites, excites, and irritates in an indeterminate fashion not connected with any concrete reaction, motion, or action. This is proof that its effect is cathartic, that is, it clears our psyche, reveals and calls to life tremendous energies which were previously inhibited and restrained.音樂會激發或刺激我們，但以一種不確定的方式，不與任何具體的反應、動作或行動相關聯，這證明音樂以舒解∕疏解的方式發生作用，它淨化我們的心理，揭示並喚起先前被壓制、被束縛的巨大的力量。
Vygotsky: Music by itself is isolated from our everyday behavior; it does not drive us to do anything, it only creates a vague and enormous desire for some deeds or actions; it opens the way for the emergence of powerful, hidden forces within us.音樂與日常行為有所區隔，它不會驅使我們採取任何行動，但會創造一股不明卻巨大的慾望，使我們想要進行某些行為或行動，它為我們深藏的強大力量開闢管道。
Vygotsky: Ovsianiko-Kulikovskii: Military lyrics and music ‘lift the spirit’ of the army and ‘inspire’ feats of valor and heroic deeds, but neither of them leads directly to bellicose emotions or belligerent affects. On the contrary, they seem to moderate bellicose ardor, calm an excited nervous system, and chase away fear.軍事抒情詩與軍樂能振奮士氣，但並不能「直接引發」戰鬥情緒，相反地，它可以緩和緊張的神經系統、消除恐懼。它提供戰鬥情緒表達的管道，卻不能製造戰鬥情緒。
No doubt that lyrical emotion (e. g. erotic poetry) has a soothing effect on all other emotions and effects to the point that at times it paralyzes them.以情色詩為例，抒情情緒對所有其他情緒或激情會起緩和作用，甚至會痲痺它。Truly lyrical erotic poetry is far less suggestive than works of the visual arts.真正抒情的情色詩，其誘惑力不及視覺藝術
Vygotsky: Art would have a dull and ungrateful task if its only purpose were to infect one or many persons with feelings.
2) Significance of Art in Life
The significance of art ought to be more qualitative than quantitative.藝術之質勝於量，感染說只及於量的層面
The miracle of art reminds us the transformation of water into wine. Art’s true nature is that of transubstantiation, something that transcends ordinary feelings. 藝術真正的本質在於「值變」—將普通情感超越
Vygotsky quoted from a great thinker: art relates to life as wine related to the grape, i. e. art takes its material from life, but gives in return something which its material did not contain.藝術與人生的關係就如葡萄酒與葡萄的關係，藝術取材於人生，其產出卻超越材料本身。
3) Social Significance of Art
An emotion is individual and only by means of work of art does it become social or generalized.個別情感透過藝術作品會變成社會情感，或說此情感被概約。
Social ≠ collectiv
Art is an expanded “social feeling”, but it remains not clear, why art should be viewed as a creative act nor how it differs from an ordinary yell or an orator’s speech.此說法還是沒有解釋清楚，為何藝術應被視為創作活動，或者藝術為何與普通的喊叫或演說者的演說有何不同。見下文。
4) Art and life
Plekhanov: the relationship between art and life is extremely complex.
Plekhanov: art is sometimes not a direct expression of life, but an expression of its antithesis.藝術非直接表達人生，而是反其道而行：表達人生的對立面（e.g.風景畫v.s.城市生活）
Lunacharskii: art is a concentration of life.藝術是生活的濃縮
Vygotsky: art proceeds from certain live feelings and works upon those feelings. This process is a catharsis—the transformation of these feelings into opposite ones and their subsequent resolution.藝術來自特定的生命情感，藝術改造這些情感，此過程為「淨化」，也就是將這些情感變為反向的情感以及這些情感的舒解∕疏解。
Biological significance of art
Veselovskii: Ancient singing and playing were born from a complex need for catharsis. A chorus sung during hard and exhausting work regulates muscular effort by its rhythm. Aimless play responds to the subconscious requirement of training and regulation of physical or intellectual effort.繁重的勞動當中，人們藉合唱中的節奏協調肌肉活動。無目的的遊戲回應潛意識裡鍛鍊體力與腦力的需要。
Bücher: Music and poetry have a common origin in heavy physical labor. Their object was to relax cathartically the tremendous stress created by labor.詩歌與音樂溯源於一，也就是體力的勞動，目的在於以「淨化」的方式舒解勞動壓力。
Song at first organized collective labor, then gave relief and relaxation to painful and tormenting strain.歌唱先是組織集體勞動，其次是讓痛苦緊張得以舒解。
Nitzsche (Fröhliche Wissenschaft): rhythm involves inducement and incentive (Zwang): “It arouses an irresistible desire to imitate, and not only our legs but our very soul follow the beat.” The possibility of releasing into art powerful passions which cannot find expression in normal, everyday life is the biological basis of art.尼采︰「節奏內含引誘∕強制，它挑起不可克服的模仿興緻，不僅腳步，連心靈都跟著起舞。」在日常生活中發洩不出來的激情在藝術中可得到消耗，這種可能性就是藝術生物學的基礎。
The purpose of our behavior is to keep our organism in balance with its surroundings. 行為的目的不外乎使我們的機體與外在環境保持平衡。The more subtle and complex the interaction between organism and environment, the more devious and intricate the balancing process.機體與環境的相互作用越複雜、越細微，均衡的過程就越曲折。
This balancing process cannot continue smoothly toward an equilibrium (balance). There will always be a certain imbalance in favor of the environment or the organism. A need arises from time to time to discharge the unused energy and give it free rein in order to reestablish our balance with the rest of the world. Orshanskii: feelings “are the pluses and minuses of our equilibrium.” 均衡的過程非永遠和諧，不和諧∕不平衡必存在。沒有使用的能量必須找到自由的出路釋放出來，以便與外在世界維持平衡。Orshanskii說：感情就是「平衡的加加減減」。
Art is a delayed reaction, because there is always a fairly long period of time between its effect and its execution.藝術是一種延遲的藝術，因為藝術的作用與實現之間需要較長時間。Art performs with our bodies and through our bodies.藝術透過身體並以我們的身體執行。例如Rutz研究藝術感知對身體肌肉組織的某些特定的依賴關係。
Nervous system
Sherrington’s principle (nervous system), in our organism the nervous receptor fields exceed many times the executing effector neurons.機體的神經感受區超過它的效應執行神經元好多倍。It is obvious that the unrealized part of life, which has not gone through the narrow opening of our behavior, must somehow utilized and lived.生命中種種沒有得以實現的欲望與刺激必須被消耗。Apparently art is a psychological means for striking a balance with the environment at critical points of our behavior.藝術就是使我們的行為在關鍵時刻與我們的環境取得平衡的心理途徑。
Von Lange: There is a sorry resemblance between contemporary civilized man and domestic animals: limitation and monotony.
Vygotsky反對「藝術＝遊戲」說。強調藝術之實用面者包括Grant-Allen, Spencer, Schiller。Vygotsky︰不能將藝術降低為只有是「鍛鍊器官的生物學功能」(biological function of exercising certain organs)，藝術是一種創作活動，藝術需要「舒解∕疏解」(catharsis)，只有在生動和鮮明的情感(live and vivid feeling)中才會發生。單靠情感，即便真誠，不能產生藝術，單靠技巧也永遠產生不了抒情詩和交響樂。
To generate a lyric poem or a symphony we require the creative act of overcoming the feeling, resolving it, conquering it. Only when this act has been performed – then and only then is art born. This is why the perception of art requires creativity: it is not enough to experience sincerely the feeling, or feelings, of the author; it is not enough to understand the structure of the work of art; one must also creatively overcome one’s own feelings, and find one’s own catharsis; only then will the effect of art be complete.欲創造抒情詩和交響樂，必須有克服、緩解和戰勝情感的創作活動，只有出現這樣的創作活動，藝術才會誕生。因此，對藝術的感知需要創造；單是真誠地體驗作者的情感還不夠，單了解藝術作品的結構也不夠，還必須創造性地克服自己的情感，尋找個人的舒解∕疏解，只有這樣藝術的作用才充份顯現。
The economy of our feelings藝術對情感有節約功能
Ovsianiko-Kulikovskii：”The harmonic rhythm of lyrics creates emotions which differ from the majority of other emotions in that such ‘lyric emotions’ save our psychic energies by putting our ‘psychic household’ into harmonic order.”抒情詩和諧的韻律所產生的情緒不同於其他情緒，原因在於這些「抒情情緒」建立一套「心理家計」和諧的秩序，節約我們的心理能量。藝術不會讓人大哭大笑。
This is not to say art is an attempt to avoid the output of psychic energies; on the contrary, art is an explosive and sudden expenditure of strength, of forces, a discharge of energy.藝術爆炸式地消耗能量
Hennequin: the difference between aesthetic and real emotion — aesthetic emotion does not immediately express itself in action. If repeated over and over again, these emotions can become the basis for an individual’s behavior.審美情緒不會立即表現，但有淺移默化的作用。
5) Art Criticism
The real purpose and task of art criticism is not to interpret or explain a work of art, nor is its purpose to prepare the spectator or reader for the perception of a work of art. One half of the task of criticism is aesthetic; the other half is pedagogical and public.藝術批評的目的︰一是美學的，一是教育的與公眾的。
The criticism which consciously and intentionally puts art into prose establishes its social root, and determines the social connection that exists between art and the general aspects of life. It gathers our conscious forces counteract or, conversely, to cooperate with those impulses which have been generated by a work of art. 藝術批評的第二目的（教育的與公眾的）明顯將將藝術散文化，以建立其社會根基，並決定藝術與一般生活之間的社會關聯。它引導我們自覺地以某種方式抵制或助長藝術所產生的衝動。
The other half of criticism consists in conserving the effect of art as art, and preventing the read spectator from wasting the forces aroused by art by substituting for its powerful impulses dull, commonplace, rational-moral precepts.藝術批評的第一目的（美學的）則是維護藝術作為藝術的作用，防止讀∕觀者浪費掉藝術所喚起的力量，不讓讀∕觀者以道德訓戒替代強有力的藝術衝動。
To explain art is indispensable, our behavior is organized according to the principle of unity, which is accomplished mainly by means of our consciousness in which any emotion seeking an outlet must be represented.解釋藝術之所以必要，是因為我們的行為乃依據一個統一原則，其主要透過我們的意識實現，而意識裡任何尋找出口的情緒必須再現出來。
例︰愛倫波（Edgar Allan Poe, 1809-1949）在〈創作的哲學〉（Philosophy of composition）一文中說，創作（指的是〈烏鴉〉（The Raven）這一首長詩）並非偶發，也沒憑直覺，作品一步步走向完成，其實是一連串精確刻板的「數學」問題。“It is my design to render it manifest that no one point in its composition is referable either to accident or intuition- that the work proceeded step by step, to its completion, with the precision and rigid consequence of a mathematical problem.”
見http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/poe/composition.html
The search for the sociological equivalent of a work of art is only the first half of the task of criticism (Plekhanov). In searching for the social equivalent of a given literary phenomenon, this type of criticism betrays the own nature of art if it does not understand that we confine ourselves to finding this equivalent.尋找藝術的社會等值只及批評任務的前半(Plekhanov)，這類力求文學現象的社會等值的批評背反了藝術的真正本質，不能了解我們劃地自限只為尋求社會等值。
6) Art and Teaching
What is teachable? Literature? It is possible to teach art outside the sociological context and only on the basis of individual tastes?藝術教學可以排除任何社會關聯，只考慮個人藝術品味嗎？
A school that eliminates lessons in literature is bound to be a bad school.
Poetry under a system of explanatory reading is eliminated from the curriculum. According to Gershenzon, poetry is a heavenly guest and it must be made to resume the role it played in ancient times.以解釋的方式閱讀詩就等於將詩排除在課程之外。根據Gershenzon，詩歌是來自天上的貴客（地上的仙子），必須恢復它在古代的地位。
According to Gershenzon, poetry can not be studied scientifically.不能以科學方法研讀詩歌。
The act of artistic creation cannot be taught. A creative act cannot be recreated by means of purely conscious operations.藝術創作活動無法教，藝術創作活動不能透過純粹處理意識的方式對待。
The most important elements in art are subconscious or creative.藝術最重要的元素在潛意識裡，或說是創意的
What can be taught? An act of art includes all preceding acts of rational cognizance, understanding, recognition, association, and so forth. We can organize the conscious processes in such a way that they generate subconscious processes. 那一部份可以被教？任何藝術活動都以理性認知、理解、識辨與聯想等為前置作業，我們可以用特定方式組織有意識的過程，以便透過有意識的過程引起潛意識的過程。
Thought and artistic images are creative acts.→此說法不明確，不能因此而混淆創作的生物因素與心理過程。
Difference between children and adults:
“The hermit asked me how many strawberries grow at the bottom of the ocean?” Answer: “As many as there are red herrings in the forest.”
7) What is art?
Art is the supreme center of biological and social individual processes in society, that it is a method for finding an equilibrium between man and his world, in the most critical and important stages of his life.藝術是個體在社會中生物過程與社會過程最重要的焦點，藝術是人生最關鍵時刻找尋到個體與外在世界平衡的方法之一。
Ideas to be confronted:
Wovon man nicht sprechen kann, davon muß man singen. (Whatever you can not talk about, you have to sing it.)→What is speakable?
Creation
Sense of hearing & sense of seeing
Instinct
Synaesthesis
Longinus spoke of “trepidation”(Longinus, 1st Cent.: On the sublime. Oxonii (Oxford) : E. Typographeo Clarendoniano, 1968.)
Longinus: real name unknown, a Greek teacher of rhetoric or a literary critic who may have lived in the first or third century AD. Longinus is known only for his treatise On the Sublime.
“Sublime” in On the Sublime: above the ordinary / The effects of the Sublime are: loss of rationality, an alienation leading to identification with the creative process of the artist and a deep emotion mixed to pleasure and exaltation.「崇高」的效應在於遠離理性，
The Sublime leads the listeners not to persuasion, but to ecstasy: for what is wonderful goes always together with a sense of dismay, and prevails over what is only convincing or delightful, since persuasion, as a rule, is within everyone’s grasp, while the Sublime, giving to the speech an invincible power and [an invincible] strength, rises above every listener.
The Sublime, moreover, cannot identify itself only to what is simply beautiful, but also to what is so upsetting to cause “bewilderment” (ΕΚΠΛΗΞΙΣ), “surprise” (ΤΟ ΘΑΥΜΑΣΤΟΝ) and even “fear” (ΦΟΒΟΣ).
Names quoted by Vygotsky:
Tolstoy
Yevlakhov
V.G. Valter
Longinus
Petrazhitskii
Ovsianiko-Kulikovskii
Plekhanov
Belinskii
Taine
Lunacharskii
Veselovskii, Three Chapters of Historic Poetics
Bücher’s studies on the origins of art
Quintilian
Nitzsche
Orshanskii
Sherrington
von Lange
Grant-Allen
Spencer
Schiller
Guyau
Napoleon
Corneille
Victor Hugo
Hennequin
Andrei Bely
Rutz
Sievers
Gershenzon
Molozhavy
Potebnia
Bühler
Friche
четверг, 12 ноября 2009 г.
Queen of the Night 1
關於Mozart的Queen of the Night
宋文里
2009/11/8
淑純老師在導讀Vygotsky的“Art and Life”課上，很出乎我意料之外地，讓我們看到Mozart的《魔笛》之中非常動人心弦的Queen of the Night那段 “Der Hölle Rache kocht in meinem Herzen”花腔女高音詠歎調的傑作──而且是看了好幾個不同版本的演出。
我在最後討論時提出：那段詠歎調中間夾著的一段無歌詞的花腔部分不可用「憤怒」或「死亡」、「復仇」等等直接與歌詞或劇情有關的概念來解釋。但我自己說，那只是Mozart讓女高音展現歌藝的一個段落，似乎暗示這是與劇情無關的意思。
事後，我對於自己的說法感到不滿，我有一些對於音樂的直覺，但我無法清楚說出其中的「意思」，因此後來參閱了一篇文章：Clay C. Whitehead (1978) Mozart’s The Magic Flute: a Paradigm for Separation and Initiation.[1]讀完全文後，覺得那個「意思」終於可以說出，我這就來簡要地說一說：
Mozart是共濟會(Freemasonry)的會員，這是史有明書的事實。他的作品中有不少是在闡揚共濟會哲學，而《魔笛》很顯然就是其一。共濟會是一種傳遍全世界的秘密兄弟會組織，在其信仰和哲學中，對於女性一直是採取排斥和貶抑的態度。這問題可以導源自古代的Dionysus和Orpheus信仰，而這套信仰又是對於更古老的Eleusis-Demeter那套女神信仰的又依戀又抗拒的結果。《魔笛》的整套劇情都在反映Dionysus和Orpheus如何既要依戀母親又要反抗母親的統治。所以Queen of the Night就是那個邪惡兇暴母親的化身。這段神話和《魔笛》的關係還很複雜，但由於不是我們討論的主題，所以我只簡要地作此敘述。我們的要點在於解釋“Der Hölle Rache kocht in meinem Herzen”這首歌所表現的到底是什麼東西。
在神話時代裡，顯現男權剛開始萌芽的社會，對於先前的女權（母權）確實會有separation的困難。雖然在神話傳說中會極力把母親描述為「惡母」，但同時又會對於母親的魅力覺得無法抵擋。於是，在這首歌中把這兩種矛盾同時表現出來了：在歌詞和劇情的部分，這是個充滿復仇之恨以及暴力脅迫的母親，但是當母親說完「死亡、復仇」那些話之後，她要用她的魅力來纏住她的兒女，於是就有了那段妖媚迷人的花腔段落出現。
我很肯定我在那段花腔中所聽出的「意思」和「憤怒、復仇」截然不同，但經過Clay C. Whitehead的提醒之後，我才敢肯定那段花腔裡的妖媚含意──雖然Clay C. Whitehead對此沒有說得很明白──他只說：Queen of the Night是個 “especially vain woman who uses delusion and superstition to erode the foundations of the temple.”[2]（這temple是屬於誘拐她女兒的Sarastro所有）。不過，我想，這樣就夠了。我們確實像Vygotsky說的，在藝術的教育中，對於藝術的批評（也就是解釋）是必要的。但我們不能陷入舊的解釋窠臼，而要加入「辯證想像」的方式來重新瞭解藝術的魅力──或是前此未曾發現的矛盾張力。
母親的威脅和誘惑所構成的矛盾張力，一方面有神話的底子可讓我們參照，但同時也有精神分析細膩的詮釋來讓我們更加清楚：我們每一個人都曾在這樣的生命史中走過一遭。因此，藝術對人生的影響，有時是通過社會（歷史）的脈絡，有時則是通過ontogenetic的過程，來讓我們「憶起」這樣的經驗。
Diana Damrau的演出之所以精彩，一方面是她的歌藝實在讓人拍案叫絕，但另一方面，作為一個「美麗的母親」，你想那誘惑還會放大幾倍呢？
Queen of the Night 2
回應宋 老師的評論「關於Mozart的Queen of the Night」
陳淑純
Nov. 8, 2009
感
我的無心：當我面臨需要導讀一篇與音樂相關的章節之時，第一個考量是尋找實例，紙上談兵隔靴搔癢，但多年的經驗告訴我，「用語言談音樂」有距離、頗困難、很陌生，在我必須面對素昧平生的觀眾時，很多時候我把談話定位在與自己對話，否則思考會出現障礙。但是「Vygotsky經典導讀課程」的參與者已經有了先前對藝術的經驗與訓練，我於是作了不同的考量。再加上上課前兩天
我的有意︰我有意藉“Der Hölle Rache”傳達Vygotsky將藝術分為擬像的藝術(figurative arts)和抒情的(lyrical arts)藝術。雖然Der Hölle Rache是詩的語言[1]，它的表達(expressivity)「敘述」角色的心情、佈達命令等，傾向於「散文化」，但音樂部份則傾向「詩」的音樂語言，聽者最多能從音符的向上攀升或是定音鼓的出現，與「氣焰高漲」作聯想。音樂的「絕對」是「相對」出來的結果，這段音樂沒有任何蛛絲馬跡可「直接」指涉角色在生氣，但也絕然不在描述角色的甜言蜜語、談情說愛。任何一種藝術都不可能「絕然」歸類為擬像的藝術或抒情的藝術，任何一種藝術都必包含兩種力量，一是散文（如小說）的「表達能力」，一是詩帶給人的「畏顫∕驚心動魄」，如Vygotsky所言，音樂「絕對化」必走入瓶頸，只及口號，不及實作，它使得作曲家無法伸展，歷史可以證明，但音樂「絕對化」的理想影響詩的語言，愛倫波（Edgar Allan Poe）說明他寫作（The Raven）的過程就是一例；另一方面，音樂有無可能絕對不絕對化，而走向全然的表達，全然的「散文化」？作曲家們已作過各種嘗試。作曲家如同詩人一樣，深知「道成肉身」的道理，或說肉身之上必烘托出「道」，「物」必出於「心」，「好詩」必是心物合一，「好音樂」也必定兼具兩種力量。如果將Krylov的寓言「散文化」，作品就只剩下語言所承載的「物」。
我在課程最後播放小女生Emily Bear的影片，本來很想和大家討論影片中的兩句話，對於自己沒有將時間控制得宜，非常懊惱。如果大家還記得，當記者問及Where does it come from? Emily answered: “I don’t know. Probably out of mind.” 以及Emily的老師說She speaks directly with her inside.我播放Emily彈琴與作曲，不是要展現她有多麼天才，而是認為這是得「心」應「手」的最佳選例，Emily是個孩子，自己不怎麼確定天份從何而來，但是她先得於心後應於手，大家有目共睹。此例先有「心」而有「手∕技巧∕物」，有別於一般人欲藉「得手」去「應心」，庸才最後可能可以「應心」，蠢才可能一輩子「應不得心」。這個例子或許也可以
我想以Emily Bear得於「心」應於「手」的例子回應Vygotsky對於創作的解釋並應用於教學。Vygotsky說任何藝術活動都以理性認知、理解、識辨與聯想等為前置作業，Emily必定先聽過Mozart的音樂，經過認知而得於「心」，她的前置作業會隨著成長而越來越豐富，創意也會越來越高超。依據Vygotsky的說法，理性認知、理解、識辨與聯想等前置作業可以經由教學傳授，不能教不能學的是「創意」，閱讀這一段文字，我當時腦中想的是
一部音樂作品如同一部文學作品，它提供給我們許多談論或詮釋的角度，如果經過談論或詮釋，作品有了新的時代意義，是「作者已死」的精神所在，也是我為何在課堂上播放好幾個“Der Hölle Rache”不同版本的目的。
Minick (1987) 283-284
Minick (1987) Thinking and Speaking (283-284)
We must now take the final step in the analysis of the internal planes of verbal thinking. Thought is not the last of these planes. It is not born of other thoughts. Thought has its origins in the motivating sphere of consciousness, a sphere that includes our inclinations and needs, our interest and impulses, and our affect and emotion. The affective and volitional tendency stands behind thought. Only here do we find the answer to the final “why” in the analysis of thinking. We have compared thought to a hovering cloud that gushes a shower of words. To extend this analogy, we must compare the motivation of thought to the wind that puts the cloud in motion. A true and complex understanding of another’s thought becomes possible only when we discover its real, affective-volitional basis. The motives that lead to the emergency of thought and direct its flow can be illustrated through the example we used earlier, that of discovering the subtext through the specific interpretation of a given role. Stanislavskii teaches that behind each of a character’s lines there stands a desire that is directed toward the realization of a definite volitional task. What is recreated here through the method of specific interpretation is the initial moment in any act of verbal thinking in living speech.
Because a volitional task stands behind every expression, Stanislavski notes the desire that underlies the character’s thought and speech in each lines of play. As an example, we will present the text and subtext in an interpretation that is similar to that of Stanislavskii’s.
| Text of the play | Parallel desires |
| Sophia: Oh Chatskii: I am glad to see you! | Wants to hide her confusion |
| Chatskii: You’re glad, that’s good Though, can one who becomes Glad in this way be sincere It seems to me that in the end, People and horses are shivering, And I have pleased only myself. | Wants to appeal to her conscience through mockery. Aren’t you ashamed! Wants to elicit openness |
| Lisa: But, sir, had you been behind the door, Not five minutes ago, You’d have heard us speak of you, Miss, tell him yourself! | Wants to calm Chatskii and to help Sophia in a difficult situation. |
| Sophia: It is always so – not only now You cannot reproach me so. | Wants to calm Chatskii and to help I am guilty of nothing! |
| Chatskii: Let’s assume it is so. Blessed is the one who believes, And warm his life. | Let us cease this conversation |
Understanding the worlds of others also requires understanding their thoughts. And even this incomplete without understanding their motives or why they expressed their thoughts. In precisely this sense we complete the psychological analysis of any expression only when we reveal the most secret internal plane of verbal thinking – its motivation.
With this, our analysis is finished. We will now briefly consider the results to which it has led. In our analysis, verbal thinking has emerged as a complex dynamic whole where the relationship between thought and word is manifested as a movement through several internal planes, as a transition from one plane to another. We carried our analysis from the most external to the most eternal plane. In the living drama of verbal thinking, movement takes the reverse path. It moves from the motive that gives birth to thought, to the formation of thought itself, to its mediation In the eternal word, to the meanings of external words, and finally, to words themselves. However, it would be a mistake to imagine that this single path from thought to word is always realized. On the contrary, the current state of our knowledge indicates that extremely varied direct and reverse movements and transitions from on plane to another are possible. We also know in general terms that it is possible for movement to be broken off at any point in this complex path in the movement from the motive through the thought to inner speech, in the movement from inner speech to thought, or in the movement from inner to external speech. However, our task was not to study the varied movements that are actually realized along the trajectory from thought to word. Our goal was merely to show that the relationship between thought and word is a dynamic process. It is a path from though to world, a completion and embodiment of the thought in the word.
Kozulin (1986) 252-254
Kozulin (1986) Thought and language 252-254
We come now to the last step in our analysis of inner planes of verbal thought. Thought is not the superior authority in this process. Thought is not begotten by thought; it is engendered by motivation, i.e.. by our desires and needs, our interests and emotions. Behind every thought there is an affective-volitional tendency, which holds the answer to the last “why” in the analysis of thinking. A true and full understanding of another’s thought is possible only when we understand its affective-volitional basis. We shall illustrate this by an example already used: the interpretation of parts in a play. Stanislavsky, in his instruction to actors, listed the motives behind the words of their parts for A. Griboedov’s Woe from Wit, act I:
Text of the play
SOPHYA A:
O’ Chatsky, but I am glad you’ve come
CHATSKY:
You are glad, that’s very nice;
But gladness such as yours not easily one tells.
It rather seems to me, all told,
That making man and horse
catch cold
I’ve pleased myself and no one
else
LIZA:
There. Sir, and if you’d stood
on the same landing here
Five minutes, no, not five age
You’d heard your name clear
as clear.
You say, Miss! Tell him it was
so
SOPHYA:
And always so, no less, no more
Parallel Motives
Tries to hide her confusion.
Tires to make her feel guilty by teasing her. Aren’t you ashamed of yourself! Tries to force her to be frank.
Tries to calm him. Tries to help Sophya in a difficult situation.
Tries to reassure Chatsky. I am not guilty of anything!
No, as to that, I’m sure you
can’t reproach me.
CHATSKY:
Well, let’ suppose it’s so.
Thrice blessed who believes
Believing warms the heart.
Let us stop this conversation; etc.
To understand another’s speech, it is not sufficient to understand his words-we must understand his thought. But even that is not enough-we must also know its motivation. No psychological analysis of an utterance is complete until that plane is reached.
We have come to the end of our analysis; let us survey its result. Verbal thought appeared as a complex, dynamic entity, and the relation of thought and word within it as a movement through a series of planes. Our analysis followed the process from the outermost plane to the innermost plane. In reality, the development of verbal thought takes the opposite course: from the motive that engenders a thought to the shaping of the thought, first in inner speech, then in meanings of words, and finally in words. It would be a mistake, however, to imagine that this is the only road from thought to word. The development may stop at any point in its complicated course: an infinite variety of movements to and fro, of ways still unknown to us, is possible. A study of these manifold variations lies beyond the scope of our present task.
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