戲劇觀點看Vygotsky
Cecilia H. C. Liu
Piaget, Vygotsky, Christie (1998)
Piaget認為：透過將生活中的經驗，不斷同化、調適及平衡的機制，幼兒的心智逐漸成熟，藉以適應所處的文化；對於口說語言和書寫語言的學習歷程，當然也不例外。
而Vygotsky則強調社會文化經驗對個體的發展之重要性，更進一步指出幼兒透過社會互動擴展「最佳發展區」（The zone of proximal development），接受成人的支持、引導與協助，逐漸了解熟悉生活中的各項經驗；對於幼兒的語言發展，Vygotsky (1978)指出，書面語言是象微和符號的特定系統，其學習過程是由傾聽成人、手勢、象徵遊戲、畫圖，而再轉接到書寫，這樣的過程必須在社會文化中去經驗，才能使其習得的語言發生社會功能。Morrow進一步詮釋：「讀寫發展是語言發展的一部份；語言發展是符號發展的一部份；符號發展又是社會文化意義發展的一部份」（Morrow, 1993, pp.239）。
Christie (1998)認為從Piaget的練習觀（practice）和Vygotsky的學習觀(learn)來看，幼兒/學習者為了發展讀寫能力，必須透過真實的社會文化經驗，與他人互動，增加練習的機會，在逐漸擴張的最佳發展區中，透過成人及友伴的鷹架（Scaffolding），不斷建構自己對社會文化中的符號系統之理解和掌握；幼兒想要精通語言文字的意義，和以讀寫活動與人順暢溝通，當然也要歷經同樣的過程，並與語言文字產生各種有意義的經驗。
戲劇遊戲和讀寫發展之研究
自1970年代始，戲劇遊戲和讀寫發展之關係的研究便是許多兒童發展研究者和教育研究者的興趣，截至目前，有關戲劇遊戲和讀寫發展的研究可以分為四個方向（Rowe, 2000）：
1、研究群（e.g., Hall, 1987; Newman & Roskos, 1991; Vukelich, 1991）認為戲劇遊戲提供機會讓幼兒/學習者真實探索閱讀和書寫的過程與目的，所以藉著在幼兒/學習者的戲劇遊戲情境中增加豐富的讀寫材料，觀察幼兒的讀寫行為，結果發現幼兒萌發的讀寫行為大有提升。但也有研究發現：成人示範和引導幼兒在戲劇遊戲中使用讀寫材料更是真正提升幼兒學習者讀寫行為的主因（林玫君，民88；Hall, 2000）。
2、研究群(e.g., Dickinson & Moreton, 1991; Galda, Pellegrini, & Cox, 1989; Pellegrini & Galda, 1991)發現戲劇遊戲、閱讀和書寫過程中所需的象徵能力之間有普遍的相關，因此戲劇遊戲的經驗可以促進幼兒讀寫的發展；而且幼兒在戲劇遊戲中所表現的表徵(representation)層次也與其讀寫的發展階段有正相關(e.g. Smilansky, 1968; Smilansky & Shefatya, 1990)。但是Williamson & Silvern (1991)的長期研究卻發現不是假裝的符號轉換過程與讀寫發展相關，而是幼兒/學習者在戲劇遊戲中的後設溝通（meta-communication）促進了幼兒/學習者的讀寫發展。
3、與前者類似，此研究方向也基於認知心理學，探討戲劇遊戲對幼兒理解文學內容的影響，特別是故事理解力和回憶能力（recall），研究群透過實驗法，證實戲劇遊戲對幼兒/學習者閱讀理解力的影響過程確實相當複雜，也同意後設溝通在影響過程中具有相當重要角色（Christie, 1983; Pellegrini & Galda, 1982; Saltz, Dixon, & Johnson, 1977; Silvern, Williamson, & Waters, 1983）。
4、較少數的研究群（Goodman, 1990; Panofsky, 1986; Wolf & Heath,1992）發現幼兒/學習者在戲劇遊戲中會自發性的演出故事書中的內容，或應用故事中的溝通模式以達自己的社會和認知目的。有些研究只是發現當幼兒的環境中有豐富的書本，且支持他們以戲劇遊戲做為一種對書本反應的方式時，幼兒的遊戲中自然增加許多與書本相關的元素（Martinez, Cheyney, & Teale, 1991; Saltz et al., 1977）。
上述研究方向與結果很具啟示性。敝人認為：
1、戲劇遊戲和書寫語言的表徵（representation）成份確實是兩者的共通之處，透過戲劇遊戲，幼兒/學習者可以強化了解抽象符號的能力，進而提升讀寫發展，而且幼兒/學習者在戲劇遊戲中所表現出來的表徵層次應與其讀寫能力有正相關。
2、把故事演出來的活動的確可以讓故事更具體化，讓幼兒/學習者對原本書中的用語更為理解，進而對書本愈產生喜愛與親近，同時也可能在日常中增加戲劇遊戲的頻率與品質。
3、後設溝通的目的是為了將書中情節、角色、場景…等內容演得更正確或更符合多數人對故事的理解，當然也同時促進了幼兒/學習者的故事理解力。
如此一來，為了促進幼兒/學習者的讀寫發展，不只需要增加其符號表徵演練機會與提高其層次，還需多讓幼兒演故事，並增加因此所產生的後設溝通。於是，「故事戲劇教學」的遊戲訓練，就是一種可能滿足這些需求的策略。
故事戲劇是一種成人介入的遊戲訓練。遊戲訓練最主要的目的是藉由成人的引導（甚至於指導），提高幼兒/學習者戲劇遊戲的品質與持續力。具體的說，故事戲劇（story dramatization），是將故事演出來的一種活動，也是創作性戲劇（creative drama）中很普遍且很主要的一種戲劇扮演活動（張曉華，民88），它更直接的融合戲劇遊戲與故事理解的成份；透過將故事演出的歷程，幼兒/學習者可將書中抽象的符號系統具體化，進而更確切理解故事內容（Snow & Nino, 1986; Rowe, 2000）。Martinez, Cheyney, & Teale (1991)發現五歲幼兒會在教室裡自發的演出一些故事情節，Willams & Silvern (1991)進一步發現由教師組織的重演故事訓練（teacher structured form of reenacting stories）對提升幼兒戲劇遊戲確實具有效果。
Fein, Ardila-Rey, & Groth (2000)請一位小朋友口述一個故事，教師將這個故事寫下來之後，再唸給全班聽，接著請故事的作者指定演員，最後由教師一邊旁白故事，演員們一邊演出故事。研究發現這樣的經驗使幼兒在教室中增加了許多敘事性活動（narrative activities），包括聽、說故事和其他讀寫活動。而Rowe(2000)也發現即使是對兩歲的幼兒，在讀完故事書之後，提供道具加上成人引導也能有效鼓勵幼兒演出故事，而且幼兒也從中對自己建構了更深的故事意義。
教師在進行戲劇活動時，必須努力的維持活動中接近遊戲本質的部份，包括自發性、內在現實與內在控制；另外也必須注意各種戲劇元素在學習者發展上的需求與表現，包含「實物」、「動作」與「情境」、「角色」等之轉換和「溝通」、「社會互動」及「時間」等其他要素（
創作性戲劇之課程實施流程大致分為：1、引起動機或暖身活動；2、呈現主題；3、討論與練習；4、計畫與呈現；5、反省檢討；6、二度計畫與呈現（
Theatre Workshop
Activities in theatre workshops:
*BODY-- Familiar with and observing one's own body in mirrors.
Examples: body exercises Tapping into imagination and combining it with bodies
Examples: expressing emotions, personifying, objectifying, abstract notions (loyalty, dutifulness, love, hollowness)
*BODY and BODY-- Pairing up participants, exploring each other's body
Examples: body exercises and the aforementioned exercises only this time with two people, e.g., the instructor prepares several subjects or topics for groups of two to work on it.
Examples: Designate a group to present "憂鬱的麥當勞叔叔"，a broken jukebox草履蟲寫書法, and so on. The topics must be as weird as it can be. To use our physical movement to present it only. Then add more people to work on a subject, then gradually adding up to the total number of all participants with a fresh topic, like 凡爾賽宮的木魚聲 and so on.
*BODY and ENVIRONMENT
Examples: preparing easy breakable threads, giving each thread to each group of two, one blindfolded, tying the thread onto both participants' fingers. No utterances, only signaling each other by the thread. The instructor picks up a site for destination and asks every group of two to reach it. The one without blindfold ushers the blinded one to the site. To feel the environment without sight and to trust the partner is the fun of this part.
*BODY and OBJECTS
Examples: The instructor prepares several objects and asks each participants to choose one they like and relate to it. One rule has to be abided: the objects can't be served as its original purpose. The participant can't relate the pen as a pen, it must be other things. Each participant comes up and chooses on one object and relates to it without having time to think about. They take turns to show their imagination and how the objects relate to them personally. They can stage a short scenario, a frozen picture-like pose, a mechanic movement.
*BODY and Happenings
Examples: Give a situation and ask participants to react on the spot. Then gradually built up a scenario and ask the participant to present a story.
*BODY and MUSIC
Examples: Ask each participant to choose a piece of music and add his /her own interpretation or reaction to this music then pantomime it out along with the music. The instrumental music is preferred than lyrical one.
Example: Make one's own music by scatting or irrational, meaningless utterances, sounds, alphabets. Then complement it with movement, with object, with other participants.
Example: Exploring one's own voice
參考資料
中文部份：
李連珠譯（民88年），全語言的全全在哪裡，台北：信誼基金會出版社。
林翠湄、王雪貞、歐姿秀、謝瑩慧譯（民85），幼兒全人教育，台北：心理出版社。
張曉華(民88)，創作性戲劇原理與實作，台北：財團法人成長文教基金會。
黃瑞琴（民86），幼兒讀寫萌發課程，台北：五南圖書公司。
彭秀麟（民89），全國兒童閱讀實施計畫，成長幼教技刊，第44期，頁25。
英文部份：
Bottomley, D. M., Truscott, D. M., & Marinak, B. A. (1999). An affective comparison of whole language, literature-based, and basal reader literacy instruction. Reading Research and Instruction. 38:2, 115-129.
Clay, M. M. (1967). Emergent reading behavior. Doctoral dissertation,
Christie, J. F. (1983). The effects of play tutoring on young children’s cognitive performance. Journal of Educational Research, 76, 326-330.
Christie, J. F. (1998). Play as a medium for literacy development. In D. P. Fromberg & D.
Dickinson, D., & Moreton, J.(1991) Predicting specific kindergarten literacy skills from three-year-old’s preschool experiences. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Seattle.
Fein, G. G., Ardila-Rey, A. E., & Groth, L. A. (2000). The narrative connection: Stories and literacy. In K. A. Roskos & J. F. Christie (Eds.), Play and literacy in early childhood: Research from multiple perspectives (pp. 27-43).
Galda, L., & Pellegrini, A. D., & Cox, S. (1989). Preschoolers’ emergent literacy: A short-term longitudinal study. Research in the Teaching of English, 23, 292-310.
Goodman, J. R. (1990). A naturalistic study of the relationship between literacy development and dramatic play in 5-year-old children. Unpublished dissertation,
Hall, N. (1987). The emergence of literacy: Young children’s developing understanding of reading and writing.
Hall, N. (2000). Literacy, play, and Authentic Experience. In K. A. Roskos & J. F. Christie (Eds.), Play and literacy in early childhood: Research from multiple perspectives (pp. 189-204).
Lin, Huey-Jiuan (2001), The effects of creative drama on young children’s creative expression. The Second International Symposium on Child Development – Creativity: A Moment of Aha!（CD-ROM）
MacLane, J. B., & McNamee, G. D. (1990). Early literacy.
Morrow, L. M. (1993). Literacy development in the early tears.
Neuman, S. B., & Roskos, K. (1991). The influence of literacy-enriched play centers on preschoolers’ conceptions of the functions of print.In J. Christie (Ed.), Play and early literacy development (pp. 167-187).
Panofsky, C. (1986，December). The functions of language in parent-child bookreading events. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Reading Conference,
Pellegrini, A. D., & Galda, L. (1982). The effects of thematic-fantancy play training on the development of children’s story comprehension. American Educational Research Journal, 19, 443-452.
Pellegrini, A. D., & Galda, L. (1991). Longitudinal relations among preschooler’s symbolic play, metalinguistic verbs, and emergent literacy. In J. Christie (Ed.), Play and early literacy development (pp. 47-67).
Rowe, D. W. (2000). Brining Books to life: The role of book-related dramatic play in young children’s literacy learning. In K. A. Roskos & J. F. Christie (Eds.), Play and literacy in early childhood: Research from multiple perspectives (pp. 3-25).
Saltz, E., Dixson, D., & Johnson, J. (1977). Training disadvantaged preschoolers in various fantasy activities: Effects on cognitive functioning and impulse control. Child Development, 48, 367-380.
Silvern, S., Williamson, P., & Waters, B. (1983). Play as a mediator of comprehension: An alternative to play training. Educational Research Quarterly, 7, 16-21.
Smilanskey, S. (1968). The effects of sociodramatic play on disadvantaged preschool children.
Snow, C. E., & Nino, A. (1986). The contracts of literacy: What children learn from learning to read books. In W. H. Teale & E. Sulzby (Eds.), Emergent literacy: Writing and reading (pp. 116-138).
Vukelich, C. (1991). Materials and modeling: Promoting literacy during play. In J. Christie (Ed.), Play and early literacy development (pp. 215-231).
Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language.
Wolf, S., & Heath, S. B. (1992). The braid of literature: Children’s worlds of reading.
Williams, P. A., & Silvern, S. B. (1991). Thematic-fantancy play and story comprehension. In J. Christie (Ed.), Play and early literacy development (pp. 69-90).
Williams, P. A., & Silvern, S. B. (1992). “You can’t be grandma; you’re a boy”: Events within the thematic fantasy play context that contribute to story comprehension. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 7, 75-93.
