Heine

Heinrich Heine (1797-1856)

Ein Fichtenbaum...

Ein Fichtenbaum steht einsam
Im Norden auf kahler Höh'
Ihn schläfert; mit weißer Decke
Umhüllen ihn Eis and Schnee.
Er träumt von einer Palme,
Die fern im Morgenland
Einsam und schweigend trauert
Auf brennender Felsenwand.

На севере диком...

На севере диком стоит одиноко
На голой вершине сосна.
И дремлет, качаясь, и снегом сыпучим
Одета, как ризой, она.
И снится ей все, что в пустыне далекой,
В том крае, где солнца восход,
Одна и грустна на утесе горючем
Прекрасная пальма растет.

М. Ю. Лермонтов (1814-1841)

На Севере диком, на голой скале
Кедр одинокий под снегом белеет
И сладко заснул он в инистой мгле,
И сон его вьюга лелеет.
Про юную пальму все снится ему,
Что в дальних пределах Востока
Под пламенным небом на знойном холму
Стоит и цветет, одинока...

Перевод Ф.И.Тютчева (1803-1873)

Незыблемо кедр одинокий стоит
На Севере диком, суровом,
На голой вершине, и чутко он спит
Под инистым снежным покровом.
И снится могучему кедру Она -
Прекрасная пальма Востока,
На знойном утесе, печали полна,
И так же, как он, одинока.

Перевод И.П.Павлова (1849-1936)

La Cigale et la Fourmi

Jean de La Fontaine (1621-1695)

La Cigale, ayant chanté
Tout l'été,
Se trouva fort dépourvue
Quand la bise fut venue :
Pas un seul petit morceau
De mouche ou de vermisseau.
Elle alla crier famine
Chez la Fourmi sa voisine,
La priant de lui prêter
Quelque grain pour subsister
Jusqu'à la saison nouvelle.
"Je vous paierai, lui dit-elle,
Avant l'Oût, foi d'animal,
Intérêt et principal. "
La Fourmi n'est pas prêteuse :
C'est là son moindre défaut.
Que faisiez-vous au temps chaud ?
Dit-elle à cette emprunteuse.
- Nuit et jour à tout venant
Je chantais, ne vous déplaise.
- Vous chantiez ? j'en suis fort aise.
Eh bien! dansez maintenant.

Стрекоза и Муравей

Иван Андреевич Крылов (1769-1844)

Прослушать басню.

Попрыгунья Стрекоза
Лето красное пропела;
Оглянуться не успела,
Как зима катит в глаза.
Помертвело чисто поле;
Нет уж дней тех светлых боле,
Как под каждым ей листком
Был готов и стол и дом.
Всё прошло: с зимой холодной
Нужда, голод настаёт;
Стрекоза уж не поёт;
И кому же в ум пойдёт
На желудок петь голодный!
Злой тоской удручена,
К Муравью ползёт она:
"Не оставь меня, кум милый!
Дай ты мне собраться с силой
И до вешних только дней
Прокорми и обогрей!" -
"Кумушка, мне странно это:
Да работала ль ты в лето?" -
Говорит ей Муравей.
"До того ль, голубчик, было?
В мягких муравах у нас -
Песни, резвость всякий час,
Так что голову вскружило". -
"А, так ты..." - "Я без души
Лето целое всё пела". -
"Ты всё пела? Это дело:
Так поди же, попляши!"

Примечания:

Впервые напечатана в «Драматическом вестнике», 1808 г., ч. I, № 34, стр. 61; написана не позднее мая 1808 г., так как помещена в июньском выпуске журнала. Автограф: ПД 2.

The Cicada and the Ant

The Cicada, having sung
All summer long,
Found herself wanting
When the north wind came.
Not a single morsel
Of fly or tiny worm.
She went begging for food
To her neighbour the Ant,
Asking her to lend her
Just a few grains to get by
Until the next season.
"I will pay you back, she said,
Before August, animal's honor,
Interest and principal."
The Ant is no lender:
This is the least of her faults.
"What were you doing during the warm days?
She said to this borrower.
--Night and day no matter what
I was singing, like it or not.
--You were singing? I'm very glad:
Very well, start dancing now."

Cicada et Noctua

Humanitati qui se non accommodat
plerumque poenas oppetit superbiae.
Cicada acerbum noctuae convicium
faciebat, solitae victum in tenebris quaerere
cavoque ramo capere somnum interdiu.
Rogata est ut taceret. Multo validius
clamare occepit. Rursus admota prece
accensa magis est. Noctua, ut vidit sibi
nullum esse auxilium et verba contemni sua,
hac est adgressa garrulam fallacia:
"Dormire quia me non sinunt cantus tui,
sonare citharam quos putes Apollinis,
potare est animus nectar, quod Pallas mihi
nuper donavit; si non fastidis, veni;
una bibamus." Illa, quae arebat siti,
simul gaudebat vocem laudari suam,
cupide advolavit. Noctua, obsepto cavo,
trepidantem consectata est et leto dedit.
Sic, viva quod negarat, tribuit mortua.

Scientific Concepts

Thinking and Speech

Chapter 6

The development of scientific concepts in childhood

L.S. Vygotsky

Yi-Shiuan Chiu

• Zhozefina Il’inichna Shif (1904-1978)

Soviet psychologist and student of Vyngotsky. Defectology

– Shif ( 1933). The development of everyday and scientific concepts. Dissertation, Moscow.

• Shif’s (1933) work

• Development of concept

– scientific and everyday concepts

• Piaget’s idea

• Vygotsky’s idea: foreign language learning

– The relation between scientific and everyday concepts

• Piaget’s idea: consciousness

• Vygotsky’s idea: the development of consciousness

• The relationship between instruction and development

– Three perspectives: nature, nurture, interactive

– Vygotsky’s idea: complex interrelationships

• Speech and written speech

• Zone of proximal development

• The relation of generality

• Limits of the research

• Shif’s (1933) work

• Development of concept

– scientific and everyday concepts

• Piaget’s idea

• Vygotsky’s idea: foreign language learning

– The relation between scientific and everyday concepts

• Piaget’s idea: consciousness

• Vygotsky’s idea: the development of consciousness

• The relationship between instruction and development

– Three perspectives: nature, nurture, interactive

– Vygotsky’s idea: complex interrelationships

• Speech and written speech

• Zone of proximal development

• The relation of generality

• Limits of the research

The goal of Shif’s (1933) work

• An experimental evaluation of scientific and everyday concepts

• The relationship between instruction and development

The assumption of Shif’s (1933) work

• Concept or word meanings develop

• Scientific concepts are not learned in final form

• Study of everyday concepts cannot be generalized to scientific concepts

• The problem as a whole must be studied experimentally

• Concept is not an automatic mental habit, but a complex and true act of thinking that cannot be measured through simple memorization

The design of Shif’s (1933) research

• The structurally identical experimental tasks

• Using a series of pictures, the experimenter told a story.

• The last sentence is broken off at the word “because” or “although”.

• Independent variable1

– Scientific concept (nonspontaneous)

– Everyday concept (spontaneous)

• Independent variable2

– Because: causal relation

• “Kolya went to the movie theater because…” (everyday)

• “The train left the tracks because…” (everyday)

– Although: adversative relation

• “Olya still reads poorly, although…” (everyday)

• Dependent variable

– % completed sentences

The results of Shif’s (1933) research

• Shif’s (1933) work

• Development of concept

– scientific and everyday concepts

• Piaget’s idea

• Vygotsky’s idea: foreign language learning

– The relation between scientific and everyday concepts

• Piaget’s idea: consciousness

• Vygotsky’s idea: the development of consciousness

• The relationship between instruction and development

– Three perspectives: nature, nurture, interactive

– Vygotsky’s idea: complex interrelationships

• Speech and written speech

• Zone of proximal development

• The relation of generality

• Limits of the research

The development of concepts

Vygotsky’s assumption

Four research groups_1

Foreign language learning

Four research groups_2

• Shif’s (1933) work

• Development of concept

– scientific and everyday concepts

• Piaget’s idea

• Vygotsky’s idea: foreign language learning

– The relation between scientific and everyday concepts

• Piaget’s idea: consciousness

• Vygotsky’s idea: the development of consciousness

• The relationship between instruction and development

– Three perspectives: nature, nurture, interactive

– Vygotsky’s idea: complex interrelationships

• Speech and written speech

• Zone of proximal development

• The relation of generality

• Limits of the research

The relationship between everyday concepts and scientific concepts

Vygotsky’s criticism

new psychology on consciousness

The development of consciousness

• To become consciously aware of something and master it you must first have it at your disposal

• Infant

– A lack of differentiation in the separate functions

• Early childhood

– Development of differentiation of perception

• Preschool age

– Memory is dominant

• School age

– àperception and memory are comparatively developedà a basic prerequisite for mental development

– Attention

èConsciousness is not only capable of becoming consciously aware of its function but of creating them form nothing before they develop

The activity and the object of consciousness

• “I tie a knot”

– What information (activity)

– How information (object)

• The transition to verbal introspection represents the initial generation or abstraction of internal mental forms of activity

• The foundation of consciousness awareness is the generalization or abstraction of the mental processes, which leads to their mastery. Instruction has a decisive role in this process.

• Conscious awareness enters through the gate opened up by the scientific concept

From development of consciousness to the development of concepts

• Shif’s (1933) work

• Development of concept

– scientific and everyday concepts

• Piaget’s idea

• Vygotsky’s idea: foreign language learning

– The relation between scientific and everyday concepts

• Piaget’s idea: consciousness

• Vygotsky’s idea: the development of consciousness

• The relationship between instruction and development

– Three perspectives: nature, nurture, interactive

– Vygotsky’s idea: complex interrelationships

• Speech and written speech

• Zone of proximal development

• The relation of generality

• Limits of the research

The relation between instruction and development: three perspectives

• Nature (Piaget)

– Instruction and development are two distinct and essentially independent processes.

– A normal and high level of development o\can be attainted without instruction

• Nurture (William James, Thorndike)

– The two processes are identified

– Associationism. Instruction is a meaningless mechanical processes

– The development of the child’s intellect as a sequential and gradual accumulation of conditioned reflexes

• Interaction (Koffka)

– Development always has a dual character

– A new understanding of instruction

– School instruction is associate with the higher mental functions

The relation between instruction and development: Vygotsky’s idea

• The maturity of the mental functions that provide the foundation for instruction in basic school subjects.

– First group

• Speech (spontaneous) and written speech (nonspontaneous),

• grammar

– Second group: the temporal relationship between the processes of instruction and development

– Third group: school instruction

– Forth group: zone of proximal development

First group_Written speech…

• is more than the translation of oral speech into written sign

• is an entirely unique speech function

• cannot repeat the development stages of oral speech

• is more abstract than oral speech

• is speech-monologue

• requires a dual abstraction (auditory, interlocutor)

• More independent, more voluntary

• Child must become consciously aware of the word’s structure, and partition it and voluntarily recreate it in written signs

• Development

– Oral speechà inner speech à written speech

• Relationship

First group_ grammar

• Native language: acquired the entire grammar

àWhat does he learn from instruction in grammar?

– The child is able to pronounce a given sound, but he is not able to pronounce it volitionally

– E.g., “Moscow” “sk”

– èconscious awareness/ mastery of what he does

– The development of the psychological bases of school instruction do not predate instrution; they develop in an unbroken internal connection with it.

Second group_ temporal relationship

• The processes of instruction and development never run in parallel

• E.g., arithmetic

– Aha experience

– Some general concept of the decimal system does develop

Third group_ school instruction

• The child’s abstract thinking develops in all his lessons

• There is commonality in the mental foundations underlying instruction in the various school subjects. Conscious awareness and mastery

• Instruction influences the development of the higher mental functions. The child maters a structure that is transferred to other domains

• The mental functions are interdependent and interconnected

Forth group_ zone of proximal development

• zone of proximal development ~ sensitive period

≠ biological process

= biological + social process

– The difference between the child’s actual level of development (matured) and the level of performance that he achieves in collaboration with the adult (the processing of maturing)

– For the dynamic of intellectual development and for the success of instruction than does the actual level of development

– What collaboration or imitation contributes to the child’s performance is restricted to limits which are determined by the state of his development and his intellectual potential

– Development based on collaboration and imitation is the source of all the specifically human characteristics of consciousness that develop in the child

• à is a defining feature of the relationship between instruction and development

Experimental findings

• Against: because of the school knowledge

– The child has greater experience and knowledge of the objects and events represented by everyday concepts

• The experiment can be seen as a final stage in a long process

– The solution of social science problems is a covert form of collaboration

• “although”. Spontaneous concepts in this domain have not yet matured enough for scientific concepts to rise above them

• Everyday concepts rises rapidly and eventually approaches the level representing problems based on scientific concepts

– àthe mastery of scientific concepts influences this development in the child’s spontaneous concept is obvious

• The regularities of the two relationships are general laws

From development of consciousness to the development of concepts

• Shif’s (1933) work

• Development of concept

– scientific and everyday concepts

• Piaget’s idea

• Vygotsky’s idea: foreign language learning

– The relation between scientific and everyday concepts

• Piaget’s idea: consciousness

• Vygotsky’s idea: the development of consciousness

• The relationship between instruction and development

– Three perspectives: nature, nurture, interactive

– Vygotsky’s idea: complex interrelationships

• Speech and written speech

• Zone of proximal development

• The relation of generality

• Limits of the research

Relation of generality

• Each concept is a generalization

• The relationship between concepts are relationships of generality.

• Longitude of a concept: abstract – concrete, act of thought itself

• Latitude of concept: concepts that correspond to other points in reality, the relationship to object

• The measure of generality determines the set of possible operations of thought available for a given concept

• A new stage in the development of generalization is achieved only through the reformation of the previous stage

– The lower operation is already viewed as a special case of the higher

• èconcepts are connected not by associative threads or in accordance with the structural principles of perceived or represented images but in accordance with their essential nature, in accordance with relationships of generality

Concept and word

• The first is the growth and development of the child’s concepts, the development of word meaning in particular. The meaning of the word is generalization

• There will be different relationships of generality among concepts

• Different relationships of generality determine the different types of operations that are possible for a given form of thinking

• Shif’s (1933) work

• Development of concept

– scientific and everyday concepts

• Piaget’s idea

• Vygotsky’s idea: foreign language learning

– The relation between scientific and everyday concepts

• Piaget’s idea: consciousness

• Vygotsky’s idea: the development of consciousness

• The relationship between instruction and development

– Three perspectives: nature, nurture, interactive

– Vygotsky’s idea: complex interrelationships

• Speech and written speech

• Zone of proximal development

• The relation of generality

• Limits of the research

Limits

• Only on the general features of the child’s social scientific concepts, not on the features specific to them

• Too general and insufficiently differentiated in its approach to concept structure

• The nature of everyday concepts and the general structure of psychological development have not been resolved experimentally.